“Do you have reason? Yes, you do. So why not use it?”
— Marcus Aurelius
A Surprising Comeback
Recent years have seen a resurgence of the ancient Roman philosophy of Stoicism. There seem to be several reasons for its renewed popularity, and the implications of its revival are important to note. It’s tempting to dismiss the interest as little more than what we might call “CrossFit Stoicism”—that is, a gimmick to generate lifetime gym memberships—but something more serious has emerged. How to Be a Stoic (2017) by Massimo Pigliucci has been translated into a dozen languages and has sold over 300,000 copies globally. Self-help books proliferate: There is the Stoic Man’s Guide, Stoicism for New Life, and Stoicism Made Simple. An essay in Foreign Policy magazine argues that Stoicism can bring order to international relations. Tired of election chaos? Turn to the Stoics. Worried about AI? Program the computer to think like a Stoic. The principal writings of the important Stoic philosophers are easily available in a number of English translations and are increasingly popular.
The best-known Stoic work is Meditations by Marcus Aurelius, written in the last decade of his life in stolen moments while leading military campaigns on the frontiers of the Roman Empire. Though redundant, some consider it the most important book ever written. High praise, indeed. Marcus Aurelius enjoys a moment of cinematic fame in the opening scenes of Gladiator (2000). What may be most remarkable about Marcus Aurelius is that he was Roman Emperor for nineteen years, holding absolute power over the known world, yet it did not corrupt him. He wrote the Meditations only for himself, never intending that they be published, and ordered them burned after his death.
Seneca’s Moral Letters to Lucilius, a compilation of correspondence, is a delight to read. They are written to Lucilius Junior, a Roman official serving as procurator of Sicily during Nero’s reign, who looked to Seneca as a mentor. Like Marcus Aurelius, Seneca was a statesman as well as a philosopher, serving as a high-level advisor during the reigns of Roman emperors Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. Depending on the emperor, Seneca wielded considerable influence over imperial policy and governance; his letters, at points, reflect the challenge to maintain his morality in volatile times, especially given the wealth and status that came with his influence. Nero forced Seneca to commit suicide, an event commemorated in the portrait by Peter Paul Rubens.
The goal of Stoicism is a peaceful and content life, the aspiration of any reasonable person.
The life of Epictetus is equally fascinating. A Greek, he was born into slavery but allowed to study and attend philosophical lectures. Freed in adulthood, he continued his philosophical pursuits, emerging as a celebrated Stoic philosopher. He left behind The Enchiridion (“The Handbook”), easily the most accessible, best organized, and most concise of major Stoic writings.
Life Is Short, Death Is Certain
As the late Professor Michael Sugrue has noted, Stoicism is a noble philosophy. The only thing that an individual should fear is the failure to fulfill his or her moral responsibilities. Stoicism is a derivative of Socratic thought, but the observant reader will see the influence of Aristotle as well, especially his emphasis on virtue and friendship. The goal of Stoicism is a peaceful and content life, the aspiration of any reasonable person. Stoicism, then, is a guide to reach and maintain that life. It will not seem like an alien doctrine for the many who strive for virtue and peace; to the contrary, much of what the Stoics teach appears commonsensical.
What may vary is where Stoics place their emphasis. The first step is to acknowledge that life is brief and death is certain. This is a recurrent theme in Stoic writing—some may find it morbid, but then again, it was St. Benedict who said, “Remember to keep death before your eyes daily.” Life, moreover, is unpredictable, volatile, and often beyond our control. Central to Stoicism is recognizing those things within our control and their attendant responsibilities while calmly accepting those things that are not. For the Stoic, such an attitude is the only reasonable way to live. Marcus Aurelius counsels, “Since you could leave this life at any moment, act and think as if this were true.”
Accordingly, Stoicism places considerable emphasis on rationality. The “mind” should always be superior to desires and passions. Epictetus explains, “Provide for your body’s needs no more than necessary: food, drink, clothing, and family. Reject everything else related to luxury and show.” For those of us who fret about what attire fits the occasion, Seneca makes the decision easy: “Don’t wear a toga that’s too fancy, but also not one that’s too shabby.” Two togas should be enough for anyone’s wardrobe.
Philosophy and Virtue
What should guide us? Marcus Aurelius answers, “One thing, and one thing only—philosophy.” He adds, “Reason and philosophy are powers that are sufficient for themselves and their own actions.” By “philosophy,” the Stoics mean more than just doctrine and principles, although reading Plato’s Apology is time well spent. Philosophy is an attitude and habit of thoughtfulness, of mindfulness, and of quiet deliberation. You can’t say it enough: “We should think about how our life is getting shorter every day, and how we have less and less time left.” In Letter 23 (“On the True Joy Which Comes from Philosophy”), Seneca writes, “Above all, my dear Lucilius, make it your priority to learn how to feel real joy,” which comes from “deep within.” He quips, “Real joy, believe me, is serious business.”
“When you are angry or upset, remember that human life is brief, and soon we will all be dead.”
Given the brevity of life, it is only reasonable to be virtuous. A life of virtue has everything to do with regular patterns of thought and relentless self-examination. “Never consider anything good for yourself that would force you to break a promise, lose your self-respect, hate anyone, be suspicious, curse, act dishonestly, or desire anything that requires secrecy.”
Not bad preparation for the sacrament of reconciliation.
Epictetus explains that a virtuous life requires humility and occasional indifference to the opinions of others. He wryly advises, “If someone tells you that someone else speaks badly of you, don’t make excuses. Instead, reply, ‘He doesn’t know my other faults, or he wouldn’t have mentioned only these.’” He adds, “In conversations, avoid frequently talking about your own achievements and challenges.” Epictetus was ahead of his time when he wrote, “We should help girls to understand that rather than their value being tied to their looks and allure . . . they are valued for their decent, modest, and proper behavior.”
For those in anger management, Marcus Aurelius is blunt: “When you are angry or upset, remember that human life is brief, and soon we will all be dead.”
The Stoics believe that life is purposeful, and we should live accordingly. Seneca explains,
Each thing is made for a purpose and it moves toward that purpose; its end lies in that toward which it moves; and where its end is, there also is its advantage and good.
We need not stumble aimlessly through life. Purpose, moreover, generates contentment. Marcus Aurelius advises, “Try living the life of a good person—someone who is satisfied with their place in the world and with their own just actions and kind disposition.” Satisfaction means, as it is said colloquially, that a person is comfortable in their own skin.
Seneca writes Lucilius, “I don’t know anyone I’d rather have you spend time with than yourself.”
The Twilight of Relativism?
It seems that Catholics can learn from Stoics and Stoics can learn from Catholics; even more, Stoicism may lead logically to Catholicism. Stoic writings are suffused with a belief in natural law, which is at the heart of Catholic doctrine, as St. Thomas explains in his “Treatise on Law” (Summa theologiae 1-2.90–108). While there are variations of natural law, the concept at least means that there exist objective laws and principles by which men and women should live. They were not made by human hands, nor can they be changed.
Moral philosophy, however, has been dominated by relativism for some decades now, but if an interest in Stoicism is any indication, the influence of unhinged, subjective morality may be waning. Could the popularity of Stoicism signal the twilight of relativism? Seneca explains that “reason makes us rational beings.” And if that is true, he adds, “the reason that tells us what to do and what not to do is also shared.” Finally, “If that’s true, then we share a common law.”
Elsewhere, Seneca advises his young friend, “Let’s go back to living by nature’s laws because then we have true wealth.” Epictetus counsels, “Whatever moral rules you have set for yourself, follow them as if they were laws, and as if breaking them would be impious.”
So much for excuses.
The Age of Anxiety
According to the National Institute of Mental Health, each year somewhere around 40 million Americans report experiencing an anxiety disorder. The World Health Organization puts the number at 301 million worldwide. Pharmacological treatment is a multi-billion dollar industry.
While the United States does not lead the world in incidents of anxiety, the affliction does seem to have an American flavor. We even write songs about it.
Scripture admonishes believers not to be anxious (e.g., Phil. 4:6). Most would agree, though, that dismissing anxiety is easier said than done. Stoicism is no substitute for medical care, but as Forbes magazine notes, Stoicism urges habits of mind, discipline, and detachment to achieve peace of mind. Stoic writings constantly remind the reader that all are subject to Fate and Fortune, an observation not unlike God sending rain on “the just and the unjust” (Matthew 5:45).
The Stoic approach, though, may seem simplistic, even antithetical to Christianity, as Christian doctrine involves aggressive prayer against misfortune and injustice: “Storm the heavens!” The Apostle Paul tells the Colossians that Epaphras is “wrestling with God” on their behalf, an allusion to the Olympic games. So, it is a paradox: Fight, but do so in peace. Christianity squares the circle, even if it involves an apparent contradiction. It means trust, fervent prayer, and acquiescence: “Not my will but yours be done.”
Finally, Stoicism should be a spur to a richer life of self-examination, self-knowledge, and penance. An excess, of course, can lead to scrupulosity, but it is easy for the sacrament of reconciliation to become perfunctory. Penance is not what it used to be: The burden has shifted more to the penitent; the priest’s assignment merely primes the pump. One of the features of the daily office of Compline is that it begins with an examination of conscience. Marcus Aurelius explains, “Nothing is more effective in elevating the mind than being able to examine each thing you encounter in life methodically and truthfully.”